A report examined the relative incidence of women and men in leadership positions in the European Union. The work looked at latest available data in the fields of economic decision-making, politics, public administrations and the judiciary. The report noted some signs of change, with the proportion of women involved in leadership positions having increased in many areas. However, there remained disparities between member states.
Source: Women and Men in Leadership Positions in the European Union 2013: A review of the situation and recent progress, European Commission
Links: Report | Commission press release
Date: 2013-Oct
A report examined gender differences across several dimensions of working conditions, and how they varied across the countries of the European Union.
Source: Mark Smith, Agnieszka Piasna, Brendan Burchell, Jill Rubery, Anthony Rafferty, Janna Rose, and Laura Carter, Women, Men and Working Conditions in Europe, European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions
Date: 2013-Oct
An article examined the labour market situations of women with very young children in relation to labour market institutions and policies (especially childcare and leave schemes) in twenty-four European countries. The article said there were links between some national policy variables and women's behaviour, in spite of individual factors explaining labour market situations the most. Women's employment was found to be positively related to formal childcare and to characteristics of national labour market regimes.
Source: Christine Erhel and Mathilde Guergoat-Lariviere, 'Labor market regimes, family policies, and women's behavior in the EU', Feminist Economics, Volume 19 Issue 4
Links: Abstract
Date: 2013-Oct
An article examined whether, in addition to the 'motherhood penalty' in employment, there was an 'education penalty' for mothers in Europe with lower levels of education. It also asked whether work-family conciliating policies played a role in determining the characteristics and the extent of these different penalties. The selection of women in employment by education was found to be largely unaffected by motherhood. Only in a few countries was there an additional penalty for low-educated mothers. The most effective policy to enable both mothers in general and low-educated mothers to remain in paid work appeared to be generous provision of childcare services for children under 3. There was no evidence that 'too long' parental leave had a negative effect on employment, whereas the data confirmed that 'too short' leave might be disincentivizing.
Source: Wolfgang Keck and Chiara Saraceno, 'The impact of different social-policy frameworks on social inequalities among women in the European Union: the labour-market participation of mothers', Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society, Volume 20 Number 3
Links: Abstract
Date: 2013-Sep
A new book examined how marketing and consumer culture constructed particular images of what mothers were, what they should care about, and how they should behave. It explored how women's use of consumer goods and services shaped how they mothered, as well as how they were seen and judged by others.
Source: Stephanie O'Donohoe, Margaret Hogg, Pauline Maclaran, Lydia Martens, and Lorna Stevens (eds), Motherhoods, Markets and Consumption: The making of mothers in contemporary western cultures, Routledge
Links: Summary
Date: 2013-Sep
A report said that the European Union and its member states were guilty of failing to tackle homophobic and transphobic hate crime. It highlighted gaps in the legislation of many countries where sexual orientation and gender identity were not explicitly included as grounds on which hate crimes could be prosecuted, along with the inadequacy of EU standards on hate crime for tackling homophobic and transphobic violence.
Source: Because of Who I Am: Homophobia, transphobia and hate crimes in Europe, Amnesty International UK
Links: Report | Amnesty press release | Womensgrid report
Date: 2013-Sep
A report said that early career patterns for young people in the European Union differed between genders, with women falling more often into unsuccessful paths (inactivity, part-time, temporary contracts) than men. It stressed the need for a greater attention to gender differences in youth policies.
Source: Janneke Plantenga, Chantal Remery, and Manuela Samek Lodovici, Starting Fragile: Gender differences in the youth labour market, European Network of Experts on Gender Equality (European Commission)
Links: Report
Date: 2013-Sep
A new book examined the tensions between work and welfare in Europe with respect to fertility. It considered the importance of labour force attachment for young women's fertility plans, in the context of increased labour market flexibility and differences in work-life balance policies across Europe.
Source: Livia Olah and Ewa Fratczak (eds), Childbearing, Women's Employment and Work-Life Balance Policies in Contemporary Europe, Palgrave Macmillan
Links: Summary
Date: 2013-Sep
A paper presented an overview of gender differences in education outcomes in developed (OECD) countries. It described the improvement of educational attainment among women in recent decades, and male under-performance. Possible explanatory factors included incentives provided by changing employment opportunities for women, demographic trends, and the higher sensitivity of boys to disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds.
Source: Angelica Salvi del Pero and Alexandra Bytchkov, A Bird's Eye View of Gender Differences in Education in OECD Countries, Employment and Migration Working Paper 149, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Links: Paper
Date: 2013-Sep
An article examined whether there was a gender gap in monthly wages among recent graduates in 11 European countries (including the United Kingdom), and which variables accounted for it. In all the countries there was a significant 'raw wage gap', but with noticeable cross-country variation. The 'residual wage gap' (discrimination) was lowest in Nordic countries. Employment characteristics and working hours were the most important factors accounting for the gender gap. Wage discrimination was lower in countries with high trade union density, centralized collective bargaining, family-friendly policies, and a high level of women's empowerment in society.
Source: Moris Triventi, 'The gender wage gap and its institutional context: a comparative analysis of European graduates', Work, Employment and Society, Volume 27 Number 4
Links: Abstract
Date: 2013-Aug
An article examined the working and employment conditions that had been described as determinants of gender inequalities in occupational health in studies (mostly in Europe) published between 1999 and 2010.
Source: Javier Campos-Serna, Elena Ronda-Perez, Lucia Artazcoz, Bente Moen, and Fernando Benavides, 'Gender inequalities in occupational health related to the unequal distribution of working and employment conditions: a systematic review', International Journal for Equity in Health, Volume 12
Date: 2013-Aug
An article examined the 'feminization' of poverty in 12 welfare states (including the United Kingdom) between the 1980s and the 2000s. Although the feminization of poverty had been slowed down and even reversed in certain cases, cross-regime differences had become increasingly visible. A new measurement of poverty would be required to capture the multi-dimensional features of the feminization of poverty, including human capital.
Source: Jin Wook Kim and Young Jun Choi, 'Feminisation of poverty in 12 welfare states: consolidating cross-regime variations?', International Journal of Social Welfare, Volume 22 Issue 4
Links: Abstract
Date: 2013-Aug
An article examined whether gender equality mattered for fertility in European countries. It said that gender equality needed to be conceptualized in a way that allowed for a distinction between gender difference and gender inequality. There was no uniform effect of gender equality on childbearing intentions.
Source: Gerda Neyer, Trude Lappegard, and Daniele Vignoli, 'Gender equality and fertility: which equality matters?', European Journal of Population, Volume 29 Number 3
Links: Abstract
Date: 2013-Aug
An article examined whether recent changes in family structure and female employment patterns had altered the distribution of income in some western countries. Increased female employment was found to reduce income inequality: but an increased prevalence of single-mother families heightened income inequality.
Source: Christopher Kollmeyer, 'Family structure, female employment, and national income inequality: a cross-national study of 16 western countries', European Sociological Review, Volume 29 Number 4
Links: Abstract
Date: 2013-Aug
An article examined activation approaches for partnered women in the United Kingdom, Australia, and Denmark. It said that women's differentiated access to benefits directly conflicted with the focus on the individual within activation policies. Activation was premised on paid labour, embodying ideational assumptions about the meaning of (paid) work, in turn devaluing caring labour. The 'problematization' of women outside the labour market resulted in their gendered 'processing' through the social security and activation systems.
Source: Jo Ingold and David Etherington, 'Work, welfare and gender inequalities: an analysis of activation strategies for partnered women in the UK, Australia and Denmark', Work, Employment and Society, Volume 27 Number 4
Links: Abstract
See also: Jo Ingold, An International Comparison of Approaches to Assisting Partnered Women into Work, Working Paper 101, Department for Work and Pensions
Date: 2013-Aug
An article examined how the duration of maternal labour market interruptions, and mothers' employment status after return, related to the division of domestic work in couples after childbirth in Germany (east and west) and Britain. Mothers performed more housework in line with the increasing length of their employment interruptions across the three contexts. Mothers' full-time returns were associated with a larger reduction in their domestic work share than short interruptions. After mothers returned to part-time employment, couples showed no, or much weaker, compensating behaviours for longer previous maternal interruptions than after a full-time return.
Source: Pia Sophia Schober, 'Maternal labor market return and domestic work after childbirth in Britain and Germany', Community, Work & Family, Volume 16 Number 3
Links: Abstract
Date: 2013-Aug
An article examined the effect of aspects of the policy, economic, and ideological environment on the gap between mothers' work-family orientations and their actual employment trajectories over the life course in developed (OECD) countries. Significant cross-national variation was found in the gap between mothers' work-family orientations and labour market trajectories. Family policies, opportunities in the labour market, and the ideological context in different countries played an important role in accounting for this variation. Women creatively used generous family leave provisions, took advantage of certain opportunities in the labour market, and adopted distinct compensatory strategies in the face of high childcare costs in order to minimize any discordance between their work-family orientations and actual labour force behaviour.
Source: Alexander Janus, 'The gap between mothers work-family orientations and employment trajectories in 18 OECD countries', European Sociological Review, Volume 29 Number 4
Links: Abstract
Date: 2013-Aug
An article examined the aggregate-level effects of parental leave legislation on various labour market outcomes of women in European countries for the period 1970-2010. The results showed increases in participation rates that diminished with length and generosity of leave schemes. There was strong evidence of increases in weekly working hours: but a decrease in wages for high-skilled women, and amplified occupational segregation, were possible results of long parental leave schemes.
Source: Yusuf Emre Akgunduz and Janneke Plantenga, 'Labour market effects of parental leave in Europe', Cambridge Journal of Economics, Volume 37 Number 4
Links: Abstract
See also: Yusuf Emre Akgunduz and Janneke Plantenga, Labour Market Effects of Parental Leave: A European perspective, Discussion Paper 11-09, Tjalling C Koopmans Research Institute (Utrecht University)
Date: 2013-Jul
A paper examined the re-allocation of resources across age and gender in a comparative European setting. Large cross-country differences were found in the age- and gender-specific levels and type of production activities, and consequently in the organization of the resource re-allocation across age. Reform of the welfare system needed to take into account not only public transfers but also private transfers, in particular the services produced within households for their own consumption (such as childcare, cooking, and cleaning).
Source: Bernhard Hammer, Alexia Prskawetz, and Inga Freund, Reallocation of Resources Across Age in a Comparative European Setting, Working Paper 13, WWWforEurope Project (European Commission)
Links: Paper
Date: 2013-Jul
A report said that progress on equal pay in the European Union had been 'very slow and disappointing', indicating that the 2006 Directive was ineffective in its existing form and needed to be revised. A strengthened Directive could be very beneficial for both individuals and society in general. It would help to achieve inclusive growth and ensure economic and social cohesion and competitiveness, in line with the objectives set in the Europe 2020 Strategy.
Source: Micaela Del Monte, Application of the Principle of Equal Pay for Men and Women for Equal Work of Equal Value, European Parliament
Links: Report
Date: 2013-Jul
A paper examined the variation among wealthy countries in the gap in employment participation and working time between mothers and women without children in the same household. This variation remained salient even after controlling for individual- and household-level factors, such as human capital, partnered status, and household income. There was evidence that institutional and cultural contexts shaped opportunities in important ways: more generous paid leave, publicly supported childcare services for very young children, and cultural support for maternal employment predicted lower differences in employment participation and working hours between mothers and childless women – while the length of job-protected leave was associated with larger motherhood employment gaps.
Source: Irene Boeckmann, Joya Misra, and Michelle Budig, Mothers' Employment in Wealthy Countries: How do cultural and institutional factors shape the motherhood employment and working hours gap? , Working Paper 594, Luxembourg Income Study
Links: Paper
Date: 2013-Jul
A paper examined how gender equality at work was advanced through social dialogue in Europe. It confirmed the continued existence of a massive gender representation gap in European social dialogue, decision-making, and collective bargaining. The impetus for gender equality in social dialogue at the European level stemmed primarily from trade unions or from the European Commission in tripartite activities.
Source: Anni Weiler, Social Dialogue and Gender Equality in the European Union, Working Paper 44, International Labour Organization
Links: Paper
Date: 2013-Jul
An article examined transformations in institutional norms about same-sex sexualities across four European countries: Bulgaria, Norway, Portugal, and the United Kingdom. There had been a radical shift in the 'landscape of heteronormativity', with the emergence of a new norm of 'homotolerance' and the progressive normalization of same-sex sexualities: a process of 'homonormalization'.
Source: Sasha Roseneil, Isabel Crowhurst, Tone Hellesund, Ana Cristina Santos, and Mariya Stoilova, 'Changing landscapes of heteronormativity: the regulation and normalization of same-sex sexualities in Europe', Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society, Volume 20 Number 2
Links: Abstract
Date: 2013-Jul
A paper examined the evolution of gender differences in unemployment in developed (OECD) countries. The rise in female labour force attachment and the decline in male attachment could mostly account for the closing of the gender unemployment gap. There was also evidence that convergence in attachment was associated with a decline in the gender unemployment gap. Gender differences in industry composition were important in recessions, especially the most recent one: but they did not explain gender differences in employment growth during recoveries.
Source: Stefania Albanesi and Aysegul Sahin, The Gender Unemployment Gap, Staff Report 613, Federal Reserve Bank of New York
Links: Paper
Date: 2013-Jun
A new book examined the relationship between changing gender identities and processes of family formation in western countries, including: asexual couples; child-free women and men; 'living apart together' couples; lone mothers and fathers; and homosexual and transsexual parents. It discussed the political implications of these emerging dimensions of family life.
Source: Elisabetta Ruspini, Diversity in Family Life: Gender, relationships and social change, Policy Press
Links: Summary
Date: 2013-Jun
A paper examined how the division of labour in two-parent households was associated with a fatherhood earnings premium in 14 mainly European countries (including the United Kingdom). Cross-national variation was found in the presence and size of the fatherhood premium. The premium frequently depended on the household division of labour: men with caregiver partners were mostly likely to receive it.
Source: Irene Boeckmann and Michelle Budig, Fatherhood, Intra-Household Employment Dynamics, and Men s Earnings in a Cross-National Perspective, Working Paper 592, Luxembourg Income Study
Links: Paper
Date: 2013-Jun
An article examined the relationship between gender equality and depression by gender in Europe. A high degree of macro-level gender equality was related to lower levels of depression in both women and men. It was also related to a smaller gender difference in depression: but only for certain social subgroups, and only for specific dimensions of gender equality.
Source: Sarah Van de Velde, Tim Huijts, Piet Bracke, and Clare Bambra, 'Macro-level gender equality and depression in men and women in Europe', Sociology of Health & Illness, Volume 35 Issue 5
Links: Abstract
Date: 2013-Jun
An article examined the effect of flexible working conditions on work-family conflict in European countries. For both genders, irregularity and unpredictability of working hours had a negative impact on work-life conflict beyond the mere amount of working hours. Yet, higher autonomy in choosing one's work time was used very differently: whereas women tended to use their control over working hours to achieve a better work-life-balance, men tended to use these arrangements to increase their work commitment, thereby enhancing their perceived work-family conflict.
Source: Dirk Hofaecker and Stefanie Koenig, 'Flexibility and work-life conflict in times of crisis: a gender perspective', International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, Volume 33 Issue 9/10
Links: Abstract
Date: 2013-Jun
A report provided an index showing the state of progress by each European Union member state towards gender equality in 2010. The United Kingdom scored 60.4 (out of 100) compared with the EU average of 54.0.
Source: Laura de Bonfils, Anne Laure Humbert, Viginta Ivaskaite-Tamosiune, Anna Rita Manca, Ligia Nobrega, Jolanta Reingarde, and Irene Rioboo Leston, Gender Equality Index: Report, European Institute for Gender Equality
Links: Report | Country profiles | EIGE press release
Date: 2013-Jun
A paper examined various underlying driving factors for the evolution of household earnings inequality for 23 developed (OECD) countries. Changes in labour market factors, in particular increases in men's earnings disparities, were identified as the main driver of household earnings inequality, contributing between one-third and one-half to the overall increase in most countries. Marital sorting and household structure changes also contributed, albeit moderately, to increasing household earnings inequality; whereas rising women's employment exerted a sizable equalizing effect.
Source: Wen-Hao Chen, Michael Forster, and Ana Llena-Nozal, Determinants of Household Earnings Inequality: The role of labour market trends and changing household structure, Working Paper 591, Luxembourg Income Study
Links: Paper
Date: 2013-Jun
A new book examined the interaction between policies, institutions, and civil society actors in relation to gender equality, diversity, and intersectionality at the European level.
Source: Lise Rolandsen Agustin, Gender Equality, Intersectionality and Diversity in Europe, Palgrave Macmillan
Links: Summary
Date: 2013-Jun
A report said that women in Europe received pensions that were 39 per cent lower on average than those of men. It developed a new indicator for gender equality, the 'gender pension gap': together with the 'gender pay gap', this would help to assess the magnitude of gender inequality in the course of people's lives.
Source: Francesca Bettio, Platon Tinios, and Gianni Betti (with Francesca Gagliardi and Thomas Georgiadis), The Gender Gap in Pensions in the EU, European Commission
Links: Report | EWL press release
Date: 2013-Jun
A report examined the mechanisms through which gender representation by mass media (television, advertising, news, and new media) hampered the achievement of gender equality in Europe. It provided an overview of the main definitions, theories, and studies; and explored the regulatory acts existing in European Union member states.
Source: Elisa Giomi, Silvia Sansonetti, and Anna Lisa Tota, Women and Girls as Subjects of Media s Attention and Advertisement Campaigns: The situation in Europe, best practices and legislations, European Parliament
Links: Report
Date: 2013-May
A report provided an overview of legislation in Europe on intersecting discrimination related to gender and disability.
Source: Konstantina Davaki, Claire Marzo, Elisa Narminio, and Maria Arvanitidou, Discrimination Generated by the Intersection of Gender and Disability, European Parliament
Links: Report
Date: 2013-May
A report said that, despite the existence of extensive pregnancy and maternity related rights, women in European Union countries were still discriminated against because of their pregnancy. In the United Kingdom discrimination related to pregnancy and maternity was reported to be 'endemic'.
Source: Annick Masselot, Eugenia Caracciolo Di Torella, and Susanne Burri, Fighting Discrimination on the Grounds of Pregnancy, Maternity and Parenthood: The application of EU and national law in practice in 33 European countries, European Network of Legal Experts in the Non-Discrimination Field (European Commission)
Links: Report
Date: 2013-May
An annual report examined developments towards gender equality in the European Union in 2012.
Source: Progress on Equality between Women and Men in 2012, European Commission
Links: Report
Date: 2013-May
A report examined the role and positioning of men in relation to gender equality issues in Europe, including: the importance of education and work in the context of increasing men's contribution to gender equality; the involvement of men in family, care, and domestic work responsibilities; men's health; gender-based violence; and men's participation in gender equality policy. Full gender equality was impossible without the commitment of both genders. The costs of traditional power-based forms of masculinity were not only high for women, and for society as a whole – but also for men themselves.
Source: Sophia Belghiti-Mahut, Nadja Bergmann, Marc Gartner, Jeff Hearn, Oystein Gullvag Holter, Majda Hrzenjak, Ralf Puchert, Christian Scambor, Elli Scambor, Hartwig Schuck, Victor Seidler, Alan White, and Katarzyna Wojnicka, The Role of Men in Gender Equality – European strategies & insights, European Commission
Links: Report
Date: 2013-May
A paper examined the response of female labour force participation in developed (OECD) countries to the evolution of labour markets and policies supporting the reconciliation of work and family life. An increase in female educational attainment, an expansion of the service sector, and an increase in part-time employment opportunities had boosted women's participation in the labour force. The effect of childcare services on female employment was stronger in the presence of other measures supporting working mothers (as, for instance paid parental leave), whereas the presence of such supports seemed to reduce the effectiveness of financial incentives to work for second earners. The effect of cash benefits for families and the duration of paid leave on female labour force participation also varied across welfare regimes.
Source: Olivier Thevenon, Drivers of Female Labour Force Participation in the OECD, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Links: Paper
Date: 2013-May
An article examined the theoretical reasons for believing that feminism and anti-racism could be regarded as fighting for the joint purpose of anti-discrimination in Europe, and the empirical evidence that might be found for such a joint approach.
Source: Helene Pristed Nielsen, 'Joint purpose? Intersectionality in the hands of anti-racist and gender equality activists in Europe', Ethnicities, Volume 13 Issue 3
Links: Abstract
Date: 2013-May
A paper examined results from the 2010 EU-SILC thematic module on intra-household allocation of resources (aimed at investigating income organization, household members' contribution to common expenses, and access to and control over money within households). Assumptions of income pooling and equal sharing might be unfounded for about 30 per cent of households. Income pooling was more frequent among married couples, couples with dependent children, and couples in which only one partner was economically active: they were less frequent among more highly educated or richer couples.
Source: Sophie Ponthieux, Income Pooling and Equal Sharing within the Household: What Can We Learn from the 2010 EU-SILC Module? 2013 Edition, Eurostat (European Union)
Links: Paper
Notes: EU-SILC = European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions
Date: 2013-May
A paper examined the 'dramatic' difference between the level of gender inequality in European countries measured on the basis of earned incomes, and the near equality measured on the basis of living standards. The notion of 'family equivalent earned income' was introduced to contrast the effect, for men and for women, of intra-household transfers as they were assumed by the standard methodology used in the measurement of living standards.
Source: Sophie Ponthieux, Gender Inequality in Earned Incomes and in Living Standards: A comparison between France, Germany, Italy, Sweden and the United-Kingdom, Working Paper F1303, Institut National de la Statistique et des Etudes Economiques (INSEE)
Links: Paper
Date: 2013-May
An article examined the extent to which cross-national differences in population and structural characteristics could explain the differences in poverty outcomes in Europe by gender. It analyzed gender differences in the risk of being poor, entering into poverty, and exiting from poverty among 17 European countries. Structural effects (such as welfare state policies, labour market characteristics, level of inequality, and the level of women's empowerment) seemed to be more relevant than individual effects in explaining differences in the gender poverty gap among countries.
Source: Elena Barcena-Martin and Ana Moro-Egido, 'Gender and poverty risk in Europe', Feminist Economics, Volume 19 Issue 2
Links: Abstract
Date: 2013-May
A paper examined gender differences in unemployment in developed (OECD) countries. A rise in female labour force attachment, and a decline in male attachment, could mostly account for the closing of the gender unemployment gap in recent decades. Gender differences in industry composition were important in recessions, especially the most recent: but they did not explain gender differences in employment growth during recoveries.
Source: Stefania Albanesi and Aysegul Sahin, The Gender Unemployment Gap, Staff Report 613, Federal Reserve Bank of New York
Links: Paper
Notes: Also published as Working Paper 2013-04, Human Capital and Economic Opportunity Global Working Group, University of Chicago
Date: 2013-May
A survey examined how lesbian/gay/bisexual/transgender (LGBT) people in the European Union experienced discrimination, harassment, and violence in different areas of life. Almost half (47 per cent) of all respondents said that they had felt personally discriminated against or harassed on the grounds of sexual orientation in the year preceding the survey. A majority of respondents who had been attacked said that the attack or threat of violence happened partly or entirely because they were perceived to be LGBT (59 per cent). Respondents rarely, however, reported discrimination or violence to the authorities, mainly because they believed that nothing would happen or change if they did.
Source: European Union Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Survey, European Agency for Fundamental Rights
Links: Report | FRA press release
Date: 2013-May
A paper examined the extent to which the over-representation of women in part-time employment explained the gender hourly earnings gap in 12 European countries (including the United Kingdom). The high prevalence of part-time employment was found to play only a minor role. The nature of part-time employment and labour market segregation were much more important factors. But a large share of the gender wage gap was still unexplained.
Source: Eleonora Matteazzi, Ariane Pailhe, and Anne Solaz, Does Part-Time Employment Widen the Gender Wage Gap? Evidence from twelve European countries, Working Paper 2013-293, ECINEQ: Society for the Study of Economic Inequality
Links: Paper
Date: 2013-Apr
A report summarized the main findings from research that combined an international overview of trends in women's representation on corporate boards with in-depth case study analysis of 8 European countries (including the United Kingdom). The countries were selected because they encapsulated different policy approaches: quotas, 'soft law' governance codes, and non-intervention. Well designed quota tools were found to be an effective means of stimulating change in non-executive board positions, despite being considered contentious by many stakeholders.
Source: Colette Fagan, Women on Corporate Boards in Europe, European Parliament
Links: Report
Date: 2013-Mar
A paper examined the gender wage gap across 26 European countries. The size of the gap varied considerably across countries, definitions of the gap, and selection-correction mechanisms. Most of the gap could not be explained by the characteristics available in the data used. In a number of countries the wage gap was wider at the top ('glass ceilings') and/or at the bottom of the wage distribution ('sticky floors'). There were larger mean/median gender gaps and more evidence of glass ceilings for full-time full-year employees, suggesting more female disadvantage in 'better' jobs. These features might be related to country-specific policies. The authors explored the influence of country policies that reconciled work and family life, and of wage-setting institutions: both were found to be related to features of unexplained gender wage gaps in systematic, quantitatively important, ways.
Source: Louis Christofides, Alexandros Polycarpou, and Konstantinos Vrachimis, Gender Wage Gaps, Sticky Floors and Glass Ceilings in Europe, Discussion Paper 2013-01, Department of Economics and Finance, University of Guelph (Canada)
Links: Paper
Date: 2013-Mar
A report summarized information on the gender pay gap in European Union countries, and the action being taken by the EU to reduce it.
Source: Tackling the Gender Pay Gap in the European Union, European Union
Links: Report
Date: 2013-Mar
A report said that a gender dimension was not specifically addressed in any of the seven flagship initiatives associated with the Europe 2020 strategy for inclusive growth. It said that the gender dimension should be systematically incorporated into national reform programmes (NRPs), and that the next multiannual financial framework (2014–2020) should make available adequate and specific funding to advance women's rights and gender equality.
Source: The Gender Dimension in the Europe 2020 Strategy, European Economic and Social Committee (European Union)
Links: Report
Date: 2013-Mar
An article said that an active ageing strategy could provide a basis for European countries to respond to the challenges presented by an ageing population. But this strategy needed to reflect the need for a partnership between citizens and society, and be comprehensive, non-coercive, and inclusive in its approach. In particular, it needed to acknowledge the gendered nature of ageing and previous life course events, and to emphasize well-being rather than just the production of resources and services.
Source: Liam Foster and Alan Walker, 'Gender and active ageing in Europe', European Journal of Ageing, Volume 10 Number 1
Links: Abstract
Date: 2013-Mar
An article examined why women were less likely than men to hold positions of workplace authority and why European countries differed in this respect. There was evidence that overall work experience, experience with the existing employer, and working hours helped explain the gender gap in authority. In contrast, educational specialization and career interruptions due to childcare demands or unemployment appeared to matter less. Lower returns on human capital for women were found only for the experience with the existing employer. Human capital composition in different countries did not explain cross-national differences in the authority gender gap, nor did leave arrangements and gender segregation in education. The gender gap in authority was, however, smaller in countries where working part time was common.
Source: Anja-Kristin Abendroth, Ineke Maas, and Tanja van der Lippe, 'Human capital and the gender gap in authority in European countries', European Sociological Review, Volume 29 Number 2
Links: Abstract
Date: 2013-Mar
A paper examined patterns of money management and decision-making in couples living in European Union countries. Considerable heterogeneity was found in money management patterns. In the southern member states most couples pooled all their income, whereas in Finland and Austria income pooling occurred only in slightly more than half of couple households. The frequency of income pooling declined as the level of household income rose in all EU countries. Couples for whom work was traditionally divided between partners – that is, the man being employed and the woman being 'inactive' (mainly doing domestic work) – were more likely to apply the common pooling system. Couples with higher education were more likely to share decision-making over expensive purchases, borrowing money or the use of savings, whereas low-income couples were less likely to do so. In some countries men were more likely to be the dominant decision-maker, whereas in others it was women. Relative income levels of partners appeared to influence decision-making arrangements less than the level of income as such.
Source: Ildiko Nagy, Marton Medgyesi, and Orsolya Lelkes, The 2010 Ad Hoc EU SILC Module on the Intra-Household Sharing of Resources, Research Note 3/2012, Social Situation Observatory (European Commission)
Links: Paper
Date: 2013-Mar
A report said that women workers had been more severely affected than men in 8 countries (including the United Kingdom) where governments had pursued a policy of public sector cuts.
Source: Cuts in Public Sector Pay and Employment: The Impact on Women in the Public Sector, European Federation of Public Service Unions
Links: Report | EPSU press release
Date: 2013-Mar
A report examined gender differences in social protection in Europe. Social protection systems were not completely gender-neutral. Sometimes gender differences lay in the nature of a specific sex, and social protection benefits (such as providing healthcare at birth, and maternity/paternity benefits) had to take this into account. Other gender differences might exist in a more overt form, like distinctive retirement ages, which might influence unemployment benefits as well. Some gender differences were more covert or disguised: they usually related to the weaker position of women in the labour market, which was mirrored in the (employment-based) social protection schemes. Longer insurance periods or no access for low-income earners to social protection schemes mainly affected women. The same applied if longer insurance/residence periods were required for the calculation of benefits.
Source: Grega Strban, Gender Differences in Social Protection, MISSOC Analysis 2012/2, Mutual Information System on Social Protection/Social Security
Links: Report
Date: 2013-Mar
A new book examined law reform designed to advance gender equality in an international context. Contributors considered the evolution of dominant theoretical approaches and traced their application to core issues, such as the meaning of gender, family formation and roles, equality in the workplace, reproductive rights, and violence. They discussed how best to define and account for biological, social or cultural differences based on gender; how the law could recognize historic and ongoing gender subordination while supporting individuals' autonomy and agency; and the nature and role of women's sexuality.
Source: Julie Goldscheid (ed.), Gender and Equality Law, Ashgate Publications
Links: Summary
Notes: Chapters included: Jane Lewis, 'Work/family reconciliation, equal opportunities and social policies: the interpretation of policy trajectories at the EU level and the meaning of gender equality'
Date: 2013-Mar
A new book examined the development of the European Union's gender equality policy.
Source: Anna van der Vleuten, The Price of Gender Equality: Member states and governance in the European Union, Ashgate Publications
Links: Summary
Date: 2013-Feb
A study explored the impact on women of the economic and financial crisis, in terms of social welfare systems across the European Union (including a case study of the United Kingdom). There had been severe reductions in social welfare services and benefits, although overall expenditure had increased as a result of increasing need. Where austerity measures had been pursued, there had been little consideration of the need for deeper structural reform: in particular, the gender impacts of welfare changes or welfare retrenchment appear to have been given little consideration.
Source: Katie McCracken, Matteo Jessoula, Antigone Lyberaki, Will Bartlett, and Ewa Kusidel, Gender Aspects of the Effects of the Economic Downturn and Financial Crisis on Welfare Systems, European Parliament
Links: Report
Date: 2013-Feb
A special issue of a journal examined the gendered aspects of migration and the labour market in Europe.
Source: Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Volume 39 Number 4
Links: Table of contents
Date: 2013-Feb
A paper examined how the employment of women relative to men had changed in Europe both in the recession and subsequently, focusing on men and women living alone.
Source: Terry Ward and Erhan Ozdemir, Women and Men in the Crisis, Research Note 4, European Social Observatory (Brussels)
Links: Paper
Date: 2013-Feb
A paper said that the position of females in the European labour market had improved strongly over the previous two decades, alleviating the negative developments in male employment rates, and becoming a major driving force behind the efforts to achieve employment goals set out under the Lisbon treaty. But the changes had been quite heterogeneous across countries and age groups. In particular, the process of female employment rates' convergence was slow, as countries with worse initial conditions achieved only slightly higher increases in women's employment rates.
Source: Piotr Lewandowski, Iga Magda, Jan Baran, Olena Fedyuk, and Attila Bartha, Gender Dimension of the Labour Markets over the Past Two Decades, Working Paper D16.1, NEUJOBS Research Project (European Commission)
Links: Paper
Date: 2013-Feb
An article examined the suitability of United Nations' composite indices and other related measures to capture gender inequalities in Europe. Many of the gender gaps in health and education variables had either vanished or even reversed, calling into question their appropriateness. Alternatively, parliamentary representation and labour force participation were variables with large continuing gender gaps. Different cross-section and cross-time associations between economic growth and gender equality were generally not statistically significant – or at most weakly correlated – at European level: this was because the gender gaps included in UN gender-related indices had reached their normatively desirable values some time previously, leaving no room for further improvement.
Source: Inaki Permanyer, 'Are UNDP indices appropriate to capture gender inequalities in Europe?', Social Indicators Research, Volume 110 Number 3
Links: Abstract
Date: 2013-Jan
An article examined the debate on gendering welfare states. It criticized typologies based on the differentiation between degrees of familialization and defamilialization, and proposed a new typology based on the notion of genderization and degenderization. It also argued against the notion of regime types, which included outputs in their classification systems. Instead it argued that typologies should concentrate on policies to make it possible for researchers and policy-makers to analyze the influence of different types of policies on different societies. It was important to know whether similar policies would lead to different outcomes under different socio-economic or cultural conditions. The author showed it was possible to analyze family policies using a typology based on genderization and degenderization.
Source: Steven Saxonberg, 'From defamilialization to degenderization: toward a new welfare typology', Social Policy and Administration, Volume 47 Number 1
Links: Abstract
Date: 2013-Jan
An article examined whether the quality of 'gender+' equality policies could be defined in ways that applied across different policy contexts in Europe. It proposed a two-dimensional model. The first dimension linked quality to procedural aspects, such as empowering advocates of women's rights. The second dimension dealt with the genderedness, intersectionality, and 'structurally transformative' focus of policies. Within this framework, the quality of gender equality policies could be constructed through policy debates in ways that were dependent on the different discursive, institutional, and structural factors specific to various policy contexts.
Source: Andrea Krizsan and Emanuela Lombardo, 'The quality of gender equality policies: a discursive approach', European Journal of Women's Studies, Volume 20 Number 1
Links: Abstract
Date: 2013-Jan
A report examined the impact of the global economic crisis on the situation of women and men in Europe and on gender equality policies. There had been a levelling down of gender gaps in employment, unemployment, wages, and poverty. The labour market behaviour of women had been similar to that of men. Although there was evidence of contained but uneven retrenchment in welfare provision in the first years of the crisis, there was a threat that fiscal consolidation might ultimately reduce both welfare provision and related employment – with associated gender equality impacts. In the vast majority of countries gender mainstreaming had not been implemented in policy design and policy implementation over the crisis.
Source: Francesca Bettio, Marcella Corsi, Carlo D Ippoliti, Antigone Lyberaki, Manuela Samek Lodovici, and Alina Verashchagina, The Impact of the Economic Crisis on the Situation of Women and Men and on Gender Equality Policies, European Network of Experts on Gender Equality (European Commission)
Links: Report
Date: 2013-Jan
An article examined the wave of same-sex union laws in Europe. Whereas no European country had provided explicit recognition to gay and lesbian couples in the mid-1980s, 16 of them had legalized these unions by 2009. Countries with a higher level of 'value secularization' and stronger links to the global cultural order were more likely to introduce legal protections for same-sex unions.
Source: Juan Fernandez and Mark Lutter, 'Supranational cultural norms, domestic value orientations and the diffusion of same-sex union rights in Europe, 1988–2009', International Sociology, Volume 28 Number 1
Links: Abstract
Date: 2013-Jan
